Reproduction steps:
1. Open the attached project;
2. Set Stripping Level to Strip Assemblies in Player Settings;
3. Build the scene "New" on a device;
4. Open the app on the device and click the white button;

Actual result: the app crashes.
Expected result: the app should not crash.

Note: if Stripping Level is disabled, the crash does not appear.

Reproduced with: 2017.1.0a2, 2017.1.0f3, 2017.2.0a4
Not reproducible with: 5.5.4p2, 5.6.2p3
Regression introduced in 2017.1.0a2

Note#2: from 2017.2.0b1 version, the project is not built because of the error:
"UnauthorizedAccessException: Access to the path "E:\Downloads\case_930414-New_Unity_Project\Temp\StagingArea\Data\Managed\UnityEngine.Analytics.dll" is denied.
System.IO.File.Delete (System.String path)"

Devices under test:

Motorola Moto G (4)*, OS:6.0.1, CPU:armeabi-v7a, GPU:Adreno (TM) 405, Build:motorola/athene/athene:6.0.1/MPJ24.139-63/64:user/release-keys

Verizon SM G930V*, OS:7.0, CPU:arm64-v8a, GPU:Adreno (TM) 530, Build:Verizon/heroqltevzw/heroqltevzw:7.0/NRD90M/G930VVRU4BQA2:user/release-keys

Google Pixel XL*, OS:O, CPU:arm64-v8a, GPU:Adreno (TM) 530, Build:google/marlin/marlin:O/OPP2.170420.019/4021594:user/release-keys

--
Fixed in 2017.3.0a5